My channels - Kulturaustausch Ost-West|东西方文化交流|East-West cultural exchange|Échange culturel Est-Ouest
- Portrait gravé en frontispice de l'empereur Quianlong en premier volume.
- Le volume VII est une réimpression de l'Art militaire des Chinois d'Amiot (Paris, 1772), la première traduction dans une langue européenne de l'ancienne stratégie militaire chinoise.
- Le volume XII est entièrement consacré à la vie de Confucius avec de superbes planches.

Amphitrite, femme de Poséidon dans la mythologie grecque, est également le nom du premier vaisseau français à accoster sur les côtes chinoises. Après les Portugais, les Hollandais et les Anglais, la France entreprend, grâce à ce navire, le commerce direct avec La Chine. Au tournant du XVIIIe siècle, le vaisseau réalise ainsi deux expéditions.
Genèse du premier voyage de l’Amphitrite
L’histoire de ce vaisseau débute bien avant son départ pour Canton le 6 mars 1698 car le projet de cette expédition naît à Pékin et non en France. Lors de l’ambassade française au Siam en 1685, le vaisseau l’Oiseau embarque à son bord six jésuites qui doivent rallier la capitale impériale. Parmi eux figurent le père Joachim Bouvet (1656-1730) et le père Jean de Fontaney (1643-1710) . Après quelques années, l’empereur chinois Kangxi (1654-1722), avide de savoirs occidentaux, mandate le père Joachim Bouvet afin de ramener en Chine de nouveaux missionnaires français. Désigné « envoyé spécial de l’Empereur », le père Joachim Bouvet rentre en France en mars 1697.
Histoire de l’armement
En avril 1687, le père est reçu par Louis XIV qui n’est pas très enthousiaste dans un premier temps par ce voyage mais il se laisse convaincre car l’expédition représenterait une aide conséquente à la conversion de l’empire chinois. Néanmoins, le père jésuite ne parvient pas à obtenir le titre de vaisseau du roi. Après avoir contacté la Compagnie des Indes françaises qui se montre réticente à cette entreprise qu’elle juge audacieuse et risquée, le père Bouvet se tourne vers Jourdan de Groussey, responsable des ventes de la manufacture des glaces. Via le comte de Pontchartrin, le vaisseau l’Amphitrite de 500 tonneaux est acheté puis rapidement chargé de quantité de glaces, de marqueterie française, de portraits de la cour, de pendules, de montres et de liqueurs. Le récit de voyage de Froger, matelot sur le vaisseau, est très instructif sur la cargaison et sur leur finalité. Il fournit également de nombreux détails sur la route empruntée et la direction des vents. Celui du peintre italien Gio Ghirardini est plus pittoresque que le récit de Froger de la Rigaudière car il relate son expérience personnelle. En raison du manque de sources manuscrites sur le premier envoi, lacune qui est remarquée par Paul Pelliot, les récits de voyage constituent les premiers documents mobilisables pour connaître les détails de l’expédition.
De son départ de la Rochelle le 6 mars 1698 jusqu’à Canton le 2 novembre 1698, le voyage se déroule sans embûche même si l’équipage manque le détroit de la Sonde. Une fois arrivé à Canton, le statut du navire pose problème. Si Louis XIV n’a pas autorisé le titre de vaisseau du roi à l’Amphitrite, afin de ne pas froisser les Portugais, le père Joachim Bouvet affirme pourtant bien le contraire au capitaine de La Roque. Néanmoins, l’ambivalence de statut du navire, vaisseau marchand ou vaisseau de tribut, entraîne nombre de complications au sujet de la cargaison et des taxes à acquitter. Le vaisseau est finalement exempté de toutes les taxes marchandes et les biens destinés à la cour sont bien acheminés jusqu’à Pékin. Déchargement puis chargement ont entraîné de nombreux retard et l’Amphitrite ne repart de Canton que quatorze mois plus tard, le 26 janvier 1700.
Retour et second voyage
Le retour du vaisseau à Lorient le 3 août 1700 et la vente des produits chinois à Nantes est à la hauteur des ambitions placées dans l’expédition. La soie est autorisée à être écoulée en France tandis que les porcelaines des 181 caisses de la cargaison de retour se vendent très bien et font sensation en France. A partir de ce premier voyage, l’Amphitrite est armé une deuxième fois le 7 mars 1701 pour la même destination. Si le premier voyage ne fut qu’une tentative en vue d’établir des connaissances plus précises sur les biens commercialisables en Chine, les informations rapportées ont été très instructives pour le second envoi et rendent les deux expéditions indissociables l’une de l’autre. Elles ont également de grandes similitudes telles que l’établissement du commerce français dans cette région, la mise en place de deux ambassades officieuses, et le rôle des jésuites comme intermédiaires culturels. Sur ce point, le père Jean de Fontaney est au second voyage de l’Amphitrite ce que le père Bouvet fut pour le premier. Il rentre en France au terme du premier voyage du vaisseau et contribue à la mise en place de la seconde expédition. Savary des Bruslons, dans Le Dictionnaire universel du commerce, détaille par ailleurs la cargaison aller pour ce deuxième voyage. Cependant, le second voyage connaît de plus grandes difficultés (exemption refusée, démâtage, perte de l’ancre et de nombreux morts). Il laisse plus de 100 000 livres de pertes et représente ainsi une grande déception sur le plan commercial.
Considéré par Paul Pelliot comme le point de départ des relations franco-chinoises, l’Amphitrite ouvre la voie a plusieurs dizaines de vaisseaux français tout le long du XVIIIe siècle.
Légende de l'image : Le voyage en Chine : esquisse de décor de l'acte III : le bateau à vapeur " la pintade". P. Chaperon
Ensemble de 15 volumes de format in 4° illustré de 179 planches gravées et numérotées.
Cette série célèbre l’histoire monumentale de la Chine XVIIIe siècle telle qu'en témoignent les missionnaires jésuites, dans tous ses aspects, militaires, agricoles, religieux, géographiques, généalogiques. Ces ouvrage de missionnaires tels que Cibot, Bourgeois, Poirot, Ko et Yang comprend des traductions d'ouvrages de droit chinois classiques, de maximes et de proverbes, ainsi que des essais sur la linguistique chinoise, l'actualité et l'observation scientifique. C’est une encyclopédie sur la Chine à l'usage des Européens.
Points remarquables :
一个人喝葡萄酒,往往始于法国,却止于意大利。对于这句话,很多对意大利葡萄酒缺乏了解的爱好者或消费者表示不理解。
大多数的时候,对事物的误解和偏见,往往是因为对这件事物缺乏了解。而意大利葡萄酒虽然很强大,却因为体系复杂,又得不到教育和利益系统的支持,成为了中国葡萄酒市场中不被大多数爱好者和消费者了解的神一般的存在。
这话有两层含义,第一层是大家最开始喝的都是法国酒,意大利一般都是后来才接触;第二层是葡萄酒喝的多了,时间久了,对葡萄酒的了解越来越多,如果接触到意大利酒,很可能成为意大利葡萄酒的忠实爱好者。
由于做意大利葡萄酒媒体的缘故,在我的身边,有越来越多意大利葡萄酒的忠实粉丝,只有见到这些人,深入的了解他们,你才能理解这句话语的意思。
我所见到的意大利葡萄酒爱好者,他们是有共性的,热爱生活,爱学习,有热情,逻辑思考能力强。他们的葡萄酒知识和经验普遍都比较深厚,对全球主要的葡萄酒产区和知名酒庄,都有比较充分的了解。
因为他们对葡萄酒的了解大多是从法国开始的,新世界的酒也喝了很多,所以他们能够客观的认识全球葡萄酒体系,对意大利葡萄酒的优势和特点,有着清晰的认识。
前些天曾有朋友在酒窝微信群里组织法国酒与意大利葡萄酒的辩论,结果居然找不到法国酒的辩方代表,最后变成了意大利葡萄酒爱好者的分享课。当然,组织者还在进行后续的组织和招募,期望能够促成一场精彩的法国酒与意大利酒之间的辩论赛。
我很期望这场辩论赛能够组织起来,如果专业的法国酒爱好者和意大利酒爱好者能有一场精彩的辩论,对于所有的葡萄酒爱好者和消费者而言,都是一件很有意思的事情,也能有效的传播和普及相关的葡萄酒知识。
然而从当下的情况来看,组织这场辩论赛最大的问题是,你很容易就能找到很多位非常熟悉和了解法国的意大利葡萄酒忠实爱好者,但是却很难找到了解意大利的法国葡萄酒的忠实爱好者,这就出现了辩论赛选手知识不对等的问题。
意大利酒爱好者的辩方代表会有一种无奈,我完全了解你,你却对我知之甚少,咱俩怎么辩~~??这就像一场战争,一方对另一方的情报了如指掌,没有情报的一方是不可能赢得这场战争的。
有没有特别深入了解意大利,又不喜欢意大利而专爱法国酒的专业人士呢?目前还没有人站出来要参与辩论,如果有,这场精彩的辩论赛很快就可以组织起来了。
在法国酒和意大利酒之间,其实本不必去制造这种冲突,在多姿多彩的葡萄酒世界里,每个国家、产区和葡萄品种,都有其独特的个性和魅力存在着。只要是好喝的葡萄酒,来自哪里并不重要,旧世界和新世界,都有着各自的精彩。
因为只有了解更多,才能更客观的看待问题。我尽可能从客观的角度,来分析一下开始那句话的两层意思。
为什么大家最开始喝的都是法国酒,后来才是意大利?
我给大家解释意大利葡萄酒的时候,通常会给大家一个我自己创造的概念。我通常会说:“在我的葡萄酒世界里,我把葡萄酒生产国分为:意大利,和其他国家。” 为什么这么分?因为除了意大利之外,全球主要的葡萄酒生产国,其实都是主要使用法国葡萄酿造葡萄酒,所以这些在全球普及的法国葡萄(赤霞珠、品丽珠、美乐、黑皮诺、长相思、霞多丽、雷司令等),通常被意大利人称为国际品种。虽然葡萄酒是伴随着罗马皇帝的征服在欧洲开枝散叶的,但是法国在近现代葡萄酒产业的发展中,的确是居功至伟。
所以在大多数时候,酒商和消费者其实只要了解不到10个葡萄品种,就可以很容易的深入到除了意大利之外的主要产酒国(法国、智利、澳大利亚、美国、南非、西班牙,乃至中国)。但是如果你要了解意大利,你会发现你所熟悉的10种葡萄,虽然在意大利也有种植,但是更精彩的是,这里还有400多种你完全不了解的意大利本土品种。
不要说酒商,就是很多专业人士,因为在学习和工作中接触的,主要是以法国葡萄和普通酿造工艺为核心的知识体系,毕竟全球除了意大利之外,主要的葡萄酒生产国都是遵循法国葡萄酒的酿酒哲学和逻辑在发展的。即使掌握了非常丰富的法国葡萄酒知识,获得了非常专业葡萄酒教育(比如WSET三级以上)认证的专业人士,却往往对意大利葡萄酒知之甚少。
所以我认为,意大利葡萄酒具有最大的多样性和复杂度,却没有能在中国普及的知识教育来支持,这可能是意大利葡萄酒进入市场较晚的主要原因。
当然,法国葡萄酒企业进入中国比较早,这中间有法国人的商业头脑因素,毕竟很多法国名庄的老板,大多是法国知名大集团和大富豪,他们对中国葡萄酒市场的启蒙和教育,做出了很多贡献。
有意思的是,从品牌传播的角度而言,法国葡萄酒得以在中国建立较高的知名度,更要感谢的是张裕、长城在多年以前不遗余力的,数以亿计人民币投入的广告和宣传,主题是描述山东和河北产区与波尔多同纬度,所以也能生产高品质的葡萄酒,在中国人心目中将波尔多塑造成葡萄酒的唯一圣殿,虽然事实并非如此。
起到助推作用的,当然还有二三十年前,香港电影中黑社会老大、赌神,或者富豪对拉菲葡萄酒的推崇。要知道,那个人民群众文化生活比较贫瘠的时代,很多香港电影的观看率,都是10亿以上的。如此看来,任何事情的成功,都不是偶然,但是影响成功的因素,往往和这件事物有着微妙的联系。
如今意大利葡萄酒在中国的市场份额只有5.5%,排在法国、澳大利亚、智利、西班牙之后。所以我经常会遇到这样的问题,意大利酒是不是不行呀?
真正的事实是,意大利目前是全球最大的葡萄酒生产国,在美国、德国、英国这样的成熟市场,意大利葡萄酒的市场份额都是第一。
中国是全球第二大葡萄酒市场,却是意大利排名第13的出口目的国,中国市场意大利葡萄酒的进口额,不到意大利葡萄酒出口总额的1/50。所以这真的不是意大利葡萄酒行不行的问题,而是中国市场为什么和成熟市场不同的问题!
没有哪个国家有中国这么大的VCE葡萄酒进口量,每年的进口瓶数数以亿计。法国一些灌瓶厂把来自全欧洲的散装原酒,用工业化的方法加工成Made in France的欧洲餐酒,倾销的到中国。奇怪的是,我只见到法国南部的酒农很愤怒,但是却很少见到中国酒商因此感到惭愧和气愤,甚至质疑这种产品的品质都成了一件很容易得罪人,甚至被攻击的事情。
更可悲的是,由于需求太大,来自法国的VCE居然出现了供不应求的趋势,价格开始上涨,于是来自其他国家的类似产品也开始涌现。
二十年来,大家都觉得葡萄酒市场的春天要来,但是一直没来。你们觉得原因是什么?VCE们真的是可以让消费者有好的体验?感受到愉悦?产生消费粘性和重复购买吗?那些酒商自己都不敢经常喝的酒,消费者能侥幸多活几年都是奇迹,真的会喝出忠诚度,能培育出一个健康的葡萄酒市场来吗?
其实这真的不能只怪法国酒,也不能怪法国人。说到这里,我要说的是,法国有很多品质优良的葡萄酒,智利、澳大利亚、美国、南非,还有中国,都有很多质量很好,价格合理的葡萄酒。我们中国消费者,真的应该多享受那些物美价优的葡萄酒。
言归正传。
为什么葡萄酒喝的多了,时间久了,对葡萄酒的了解越来越多,如果接触到意大利酒,很可能成为意大利葡萄酒的忠实爱好者?
对于大多数葡萄酒爱好者而言,葡萄酒的丰富、多变和不可掌控,是吸引很多人去不断探索的主要原因。熟悉了法国葡萄酒,喝了名庄,喝遍了新世界,意大利将是一座不可绕过的山脉。
对于大多数葡萄酒爱好者而言,意大利葡萄酒是未知、神秘和不容易亲近的。了解意大利,要放空自己,用更开放的心态去尝试和了解。这个开始的过程,最好有一位了解意大利葡萄酒的朋友做引导,不然很多人可能是因为不了解和误会,错过那扇刚刚打开的意大利葡萄酒之门。
我经常对刚刚开始接触意大利葡萄酒的朋友说,了解意大利,不能按照理解法国酒的方式,因为意大利的葡萄种植和酿酒的哲学与逻辑,与以法国为代表的葡萄酒世界不同。
法国有代表性的三个产区,波尔多、香槟和勃艮第。尊重风土,但是采取了非常多的人工干预,不仅仅在葡萄种植的环境,尤其是酿造中,小橡木桶的使用、瓶中二次发酵中酵母的使用,都是通过人工去弥补葡萄风土的不足,或是赋予本不属于葡萄的一些更完美的元素。
我发自内心的注重法国对于葡萄酒产业发展的巨大贡献,也非常享受那些近乎完美的法国精品酒的品质,这种哲学和技术也因此在全球被广泛的使用,带给全球消费者美好的体验。
那意大利和法国的不同是什么呢?
是意大利葡萄酒的多样性,最少的人工干预以实现对风土的保护和尊重,以及追求个性和创新精神。
我经常用这样的一个比喻,来对比法国为代表的葡萄酒和意大利葡萄酒。
我说,法国葡萄酒所代表的风格,就像你去参加一个隆重的晚宴,你走进房间,所有的男士都是身着燕尾服的绅士和贵族,所有的女士都是盛装晚礼服的淑女和贵妇,彬彬有礼,温文尔雅。
然而意大利,却是同样的一个晚宴,你走进去,发现里面容纳了各种个样的人,有政要、有商人,有艺术家、也有科学家,有明星、也有贵族,有赛车手、也有足球运动员,有工程师、也有it男,有玩美术的、也有玩音乐的。
即使是玩音乐的,有搞交响乐的、有唱歌剧的,有搞古典的,也有玩现代的。即使是摇滚乐,也有乡村、布鲁斯、迷幻和重金属。这就是意大利,风格各异,多姿多彩,即传承经典,也乐于创新;即尊重市场,也坚持个性。
说到这里,你能理解为什么那么多人深爱意大利吗?
或许是因为尊重,或许是因为你可以有更多的选择,或许是因为没有人要求你必须记住这个酒是否是名庄,是不是很贵。在意大利只要你愿意探索,总有一种或几种价格不贵的意大利酒,能让你刻骨铭心,痴心不改。
我有一个发现,很多人问我,意大利为什么没有排名,没有列级庄?
我说,意大利从政府到产区,没有人愿意去排名,或许是他们期望更多的公平,或许是不去制造利益集团。
在法国波尔多,为什么很少有酒庄能超越1855列级庄?
评级,是奖励优秀者。但是评级也是一把双刃剑,因为列级庄可能会变成利益集团,变成产区的天花板。智利十八罗汉,谁想称为第十九罗汉?那要先经过18位利益获得者的同意,这就是江湖,放之四海皆准…
我采访过很多意大利葡萄酒产区,大多数人都认为排名只能代表过去,不能激励一家酒庄把酒酿的更好。他们认为,每个酒庄主和酿酒师都有权利去追求自己认为好的风格和个性,一个值得大家学习的榜样,不应该是怎么把葡萄酒做成一个样子,而是制造出更多不同的美好!
这就是我眼中的意大利葡萄酒,或许是因为喜爱,有些许的不够客观。但是,如果这篇文章能唤起你尝试和了解意大利葡萄酒的兴趣,我想,我们的葡萄酒世界将会更加丰富多彩,我们也将得到更多不同体验带来的快乐。(Quelle:https://m.winesinfo.com/ 略有删节)

The Macartney Embassy (Chinese: 馬加爾尼使團), also called the Macartney Mission, was the first British diplomatic mission to China, which took place in 1793. It is named for its leader, George Macartney, Great Britain's first envoy to China. The goals of the mission included the opening of new ports for British trade in China, the establishment of a permanent embassy in Beijing, the cession of a small island for British use along China's coast, and the relaxation of trade restrictions on British merchants in Guangzhou (Canton). Macartney's delegation met with the Qianlong Emperor, who rejected all of the British requests. Although the mission failed to achieve its official objectives, it was later noted for the extensive cultural, political, and geographical observations its participants recorded in China and brought back to Europe.
Foreign maritime trade in China was regulated through the Canton System, which emerged gradually through a series of imperial edicts in the 17th and 18th centuries. This system channeled formal trade through the Cohong, a guild of thirteen trading companies (known in Cantonese as "hong") selected by the imperial government. In 1725, the Yongzheng Emperor gave the Cohong legal responsibility over commerce in Guangzhou. By the 18th century, Guangzhou, known as Canton to British merchants at the time, had become the most active port in the China trade, thanks partly to its convenient access to the Pearl River Delta. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor confined all foreign maritime trade to Guangzhou. Qianlong, who ruled the Qing dynasty at its zenith, was wary of the transformations of Chinese society that might result from unrestricted foreign access.[1] Chinese subjects were not permitted to teach the Chinese language to foreigners, and European traders were forbidden to bring women into China.[2]: 50–53
By the late 18th century, British traders felt confined by the Canton System and, in an attempt to gain greater trade rights, they lobbied for an embassy to go before the emperor and request changes to the current arrangements. The need for an embassy was partly due to the growing trade imbalance between China and Great Britain, driven largely by the British demand for tea, as well as other Chinese products like porcelain and silk. The East India Company, whose trade monopoly in the East encompassed the tea trade, was obliged by the Qing government to pay for Chinese tea with silver. To address the trade deficit, efforts were made to find British products that could be sold to the Chinese.
At the time of Macartney's mission to China, the East India Company was beginning to grow opium in India to sell in China. The company made a concerted effort starting in the 1780s to finance the tea trade with opium.[3] Macartney, who had served in India as Governor of Madras (present-day Chennai), was ambivalent about selling the drug to the Chinese, preferring to substitute "rice or any better production in its place".[2]: 8–9 An official embassy would provide an opportunity to introduce new British products to the Chinese market, which the East India Company had been criticised for failing to do.[4]
In 1787, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger and East India Company official Henry Dundas dispatched Colonel Charles Cathcart to serve as Britain's first ambassador to China. Cathcart became ill during the voyage, however, and died just before his ship, HMS Vestal, reached China. After the failure of the Cathcart Embassy, Macartney proposed that another attempt be made under his friend Sir George Staunton. Dundas, who had become Home Secretary, suggested in 1791 that Macartney himself take up the mission instead. Macartney accepted on the condition that he would be made an earl, and given the authority to choose his companions.
Macartney chose George Staunton as his right-hand man, whom he entrusted to continue the mission should Macartney himself prove unable to do so. Staunton brought along his son, Thomas, who served the mission as a page. John Barrow (later Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet) served as the embassy's comptroller. Joining the mission were two doctors (Hugh Gillan[5][6] and William Scott), two secretaries, three attachés, and a military escort. Artists William Alexander and Thomas Hickey would produce drawings and paintings of the mission's events. A group of scientists also accompanied the embassy, led by James Dinwiddie.[2]: 6–8
It was difficult for Macartney to find anyone in Britain who could speak Chinese because it was illegal for Chinese people to teach foreigners. Chinese who taught foreigners their language risked death, as was the case with the teacher of James Flint, a merchant who broke protocol by complaining directly to Qianlong about corrupt officials in Canton.[7] Macartney did not want to rely on native interpreters, as was the custom in Canton.[8] The mission brought along four Chinese Catholic priests as interpreters. Two were from the Collegium Sinicum in Naples, where George Staunton had recruited them: Paolo Cho (周保羅) and Jacobus Li (李雅各; 李自標; Li Zibiao).[9] They were familiar with Latin, but not English. The other two were priests at the Roman Catholic College of the Propaganda, which trained Chinese boys brought home by missionaries in Christianity. The two wanted to return home to China, to whom Staunton offered free passage to Macau.[2]: 5 [10] The 100-member delegation also included scholars and valets.[11]
Among those who had called for a mission to China was Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, President of the Royal Society. Banks had been the botanist on board HMS Endeavour for the first voyage of Captain James Cook, as well as the driving force behind the 1787 expedition of HMS Bounty to Tahiti. Banks, who had been growing tea plants privately since 1780, had ambitions to gather valuable plants from all over the world to be studied at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and the newly established Calcutta Botanical Garden in Bengal. Above all, he wanted to grow tea in Bengal or Assam, and address the "immense debt of silver" caused by the tea trade. At this time, botanists were not yet aware that a variety of the tea plant (camellia sinensis var. assamica) was already growing natively in Assam, a fact that Robert Bruce was to discover in 1823. Banks advised the embassy to gather as many plants as possible in their travels, especially tea plants. He also insisted that gardeners and artists be present on the expedition to make observations and illustrations of local flora. Accordingly, David Stronach and John Haxton served as the embassy's botanical gardeners.[12]
The China Folk House Retreat is a Chinese folk house in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, United States, reconstructed from its original location in Yunnan in China. A non-profit organization dismantled and rebuilt it piece by piece with the goal to improve U.S. understanding of Chinese culture.
History
John Flower, director of Sidwell Friends School's Chinese studies program, and his wife Pamela Leonard started bringing students to Yunnan in 2012 as part of a China fieldwork program. In 2014 Flower, Leonard, and their students found the house in a small village named Cizhong (Chinese: 茨 中) in Jianchuan County of Yunnan, China. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, they brought dozens of 11th and 12th-grade students to Yunnan to experience the cultural and natural environment of this province every spring. The architectural style of this house is a blend of Han, Bai, Naxi and Tibetan styles.
The Cizhong Village is located in eastern Himalaya, alongside the Mekong River. It has a long history of Sino-foreign cultural exchanges. The Paris Foreign Missions Society established the Cizhong Catholic Church in 1867. When they visited the village, Zhang Jianhua, owner of the house, invited them to his home. Zhang told them that the house was built in 1989, and would be flooded by a new hydroelectric power station. While the government built a new house for him one kilometer away, Flower came up with the idea of dismantling the house and rebuilding it in the United States. This house was built using mortise and tenon structure, which made it easy to be dismantled.
Logistics
Flower and his students visited Zhang several times and eventually bought the house from him. After measurements and photographing, the whole house was dismantled, sent to Tianjin and shipped to Baltimore, and finally to West Virginia. Since 2017, they have spent several years rebuilding the house in Harpers Ferry, at the Friends Wilderness Center, following the traditional Chinese method of building. For the development of this project, Flower and Leonard formed the China Folk House Retreat.
荷兰东印度公司,正式名称为联合东印度公司(荷兰语:Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie,简称VOC),是荷兰历史上为向亚洲发展而成立的特许公司,成立于1602年3月20日,1798年解散,是世界第一家跨国公司、股份有限公司(指公开而非特权股份)。
其标帜以V串连O和C(上方的A为荷兰阿姆斯特丹的缩写,代表该船只或设备是阿姆斯特丹所派出,若为米德尔堡市派出者则加注M字,依此类推。)。在其成立将近200年间,总共向海外派出1,772艘船,约有100万人次的欧洲人搭乘4789航次的船班从荷兰前往亚洲地区。平均每个海外据点有25,000名员工、12,000名船员。
Die Niederländische Ostindien-Kompanie (niederländisch Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie; Vereenigde Geoctroyeerde Oostindische Compagnie, abgekürzt VOC oder kurz Compagnie) war eine Ostindien-Kompanie, zu der sich am 20. März 1602 niederländische Kaufmannskompanien zusammenschlossen, um die Konkurrenz untereinander auszuschalten. Die VOC erhielt vom niederländischen Staat Handelsmonopole sowie Hoheitsrechte in Landerwerb, Kriegsführung und Festungsbau. Sie war eines der größten Handelsunternehmen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts.
Die VOC hatte ihren Hauptsitz in Amsterdam und Middelburg. Das Hauptquartier der Handelsschifffahrt befand sich in Batavia, der heutigen indonesischen Hauptstadt Jakarta auf Java. Weitere Niederlassungen wurden auf anderen Inseln des heutigen Indonesiens gegründet. Ein Handelsposten lag auch auf Deshima, einer künstlichen Insel vor der Küste der japanischen Stadt Nagasaki und weitere in Persien, Bengalen, heute Teil von Bangladesch und Indien, Ceylon, Formosa, Kapstadt und Südindien.
Die wirtschaftliche Stärke der VOC beruhte vor allem auf der Kontrolle der Gewürzroute von Hinterindien nach Europa, womit sie einen Teil des lukrativen Indienhandels beherrschte. Das in sechs Kammern (Kamers) strukturierte Unternehmen war das erste, das Aktien ausgab. Nach dem Vierten Englisch-Niederländischen Krieg von 1780 bis 1784 kam die Kompanie in finanzielle Schwierigkeiten und wurde 1798 liquidiert.
Während zweier Jahrhunderte des in vielen Bereichen monopolisierten Handels hatte die VOC circa 4700 Schiffe unter Segel, auf denen insgesamt zirka eine Million Menschen befördert wurden. Dabei entfällt auf das erste Jahrhundert zirka ein Drittel, auf das zweite zwei Drittel von beiden Zahlen. Der Handelswert der nach Europa transportierten Waren betrug im ersten Jahrhundert bis 1700 bereits 577 Millionen Gulden und im zweiten bis 1795 1,6 Milliarden Gulden. Die Konkurrentin der VOC, die 1600 in London gegründete Englische Ostindien-Kompanie (EIC), später Britische Ostindien-Kompanie (BEIC), konnte sich nicht gegen die VOC durchsetzen. Lediglich gegen Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts gab es eine kurze Phase, während derer die EIC/BEIC zu einer ernstzunehmenden Konkurrentin erstarkt war.

自西方历史上著名的旅游书《马可·波罗游记》诞生以后,西方与中国的往来就日渐频繁: 从15世纪末起,中国的瓷器在欧洲大受欢迎,紧接着是青铜器、漆器、象牙雕刻、绘画及家具,中国的茶叶和丝绸也成了欧洲市场上的紧俏商品。数以千计的冒险家、士兵、传教士、海员及学者,当然人数最多的是商人,来到中国。之后将无数艺术珍品带回欧洲,瞬间席卷交易市场,而各家旧大陆博物馆都得以极大地丰富了藏品,可惜它们并未对藏品质量进行筛选。这些被带回的艺术品大多被卖给了一些精致讲究的享乐主义者,而不是艺术家或艺术研究者。 由于仍缺乏对中国艺术的研究,商人购买时并不在意作品的艺术性,是否极具异域风情才是他们的评判标准。
19世纪,东亚艺术史学家奥斯卡·明斯特伯格在环游世界的旅行之后,在一次聚会与深谙艺术的同好们交流中,迸发灵感: 他计划收集到尽可能丰富的研究资料,整理归类现有的珍贵图片,在客观描述规模宏大的文献资料以外,对原作给出一些自己的评论,来还原一个较为完整的中国艺术史。
奥斯卡·明斯特伯格(Oskar Münsterberg)出生于但泽(现属波兰)的一个犹太人家庭,父亲莫里茨·明斯特伯格是一位商人,母亲安娜·伯恩哈迪是画家。父母的职业对他后来的发展道路有着极其深远的影响。明斯特伯格分别于慕尼黑和弗赖堡修习国民经济学和艺术史,从弗莱堡大学毕业后,他前往德国首都柏林,于1906年成为《德国民族报》总编。
三年后他转战莱比锡,就职成为一家出版社的社长。1912年,他重返柏林,主持哈格尔伯格出版社的主要工作。 在此期间,明斯特伯格曾多次因公来到东亚,对当地的人文产生浓厚兴趣并出版了一系列相关书籍。
第一部巨著《日本艺术史》(第一卷)于1904年问世,至1907年为止共出版三卷。 1895年发表论文《中国的改革——东亚历史政治与国民经济研究》,为他对中国艺术史的研究打下了坚实的基础,1910—1912年间,他的第二部煌煌巨著《中国艺术史》出版了。
《中国艺术史》是19世纪德国东亚艺术史学家奥斯卡·明斯特伯格的力作,系统阐释了中国辉煌博大的艺术史。 原著涵盖了从石器时代至清代的中国古代建筑、雕塑、绘画、青铜器、陶瓷、手工艺品等内容,共收录1034幅彩色图版及黑白插图和照片,每幅图片均详述器物名称、尺寸、收藏者信息等。
原著为德文版,分为两卷,分别于1910年、1912 年首次出版。两卷内容各有侧重。第一卷收录321幅黑白图版和15幅彩色图版,从历史的纵向发展,即从新石器时代至清末,诠释了中国艺术风格演化的逻辑和特质;作者又以佛教传入中国为分界线,通过中外古代石刻、青铜器、陶器、绘画、雕塑等作品,呈现了中西方三千年来在艺术上的对话交流。
第二卷分为建筑艺术和工艺美术两大部分,收录675幅黑白图版和23幅彩色图版,涵盖了中国古代建筑、青铜器、陶瓷、宝石制品、印刷品、织物、漆器与木器、琉璃、珐琅、犀角、玳瑁、琥珀、象牙等器物近1200件,通过艺术作品本身所展现的审美趣味,厘清中国艺术的发展脉络。
因原著两卷在内容上各有侧重,且论述角度不同,本次出版在保留原书完整内容的基础上,对编辑体例进行了调整,将原著两卷分别以《中西艺术交流3000年》和《中国艺术3000年》为名,单独成册出版。
在19世纪初,这部作品尝试系统地阐述中国艺术语言及其表现形式的发展历史,这在当时的学界应是史无前例的。 将其翻译、出版,对于促进学术研究和文化交流,以及了解和研究近代中国问题具有重要参考价值。
France was one of the most energetic and creative nations in Western history. The ever-evolving French clothing tradition has remained an inspiration for fashionistas, says Abarrna Devi R.
Fashion is an integral part of the society and culture in France and acts as one of the core brand images for the country. Haute couture and pret-a-porter have French origins. France has produced many renowned designers and French designs have been dominating the fashion world since the 15th century. The French fashion industry has cultivated its reputation in style and innovation and remained an important cultural export for over four centuries. Designers like Gabrielle Bonheur 'Coco' Chanel, Christian Dior, Yves Saint Laurent, Thierry Herms and Louis Vuitton have founded some of the most famous and popular fashion brands.
In the 16th century, fashion clothing in France dealt with contrast fabrics, clashes, trims and other accessories. Silhouette, which refers to the line of a dress or the garment's overall shape, was wide and conical for women and square for men in the 1530s. Around the middle of that decade, a tall and narrow line with a V-shaped waist appeared. Focusing on the shoulder point, sleeves and skirts for women were widened. Ruffles got associated with neckband of a shirt and was shaped with clear folds. A ruffle, frill, or furbelow is a strip of fabric, lace or ribbon tightly gathered or pleated on one edge and applied to a garment, bedding, or other textile as a form of trimming.
Outer clothing for women was characterised by a loose or fitted gown over a petticoat. In the 1560s, trumpet sleeves were rejected and the silhouette became narrow and widened with concentration in shoulder and hip.
Between 1660 and 1700, the older silhouette was replaced by a long, lean line with a low waist for both men and women. A low-body, tightly-laced dress was plaited behind, with the petticoat looped upon a pannier (part of a skirt looped up round the hips) covered with a shirt. The dress was accompanied by black leather shoes. Winter dress for women was trimmed with fur. Overskirt was drawn back in later half of the decades, and pinned up with the heavily-decorated petticoat. But around 1650, full, loose sleeves became longer and tighter. The dress tightly hugged the body with a low and broad neckline and adjusted shoulder.
Men's clothing did not change much in the first half of the 17th century. In 1725, the skirts of the coat acted as a pannier. This was brought about by making five or six folds distended by paper or horsehair and by the black ribbon worn around the neck to give the effect of the frill. A hat carried under the arm and a wig added to the charm. At court ceremonies, women wore a large coat embroidered with gold that was open in the front and buttoned up with a belt or a waist band. The light coat was figure-hugging with tighter sleeves. It was projected in the back with a double row of silk or metal buttons in various shapes and sizes.
French fashion varied between 1750 and 1775. Elaborate court dresses with enchanting colours and decoration defined style. In the 1750s, the size of hoop skirts got smaller and was worn with formal dresses with side-hoops. Use of waistcoats and breeches continued. A low-neck gown was worn over a petticoat during this period. Sleeves were cut with frills or ruffles with fine linen attached to the smock sleeves. The neckline was fitted with trimmed fabric or lace ruffle and a neckerchief (scarf).
Fashion between 1795 and 1820 in European countries transformed into informal styles involving brocades and lace. It was distinctly different from earlier styles as well as from the ones seen in the latter half of the 19th century. Women's clothes were tight against the torso from the waist upwards and heavily full-skirted. The short-waist dresses adorned with soft, loose skirts were fabricated with white, transparent muslin. Evening gowns were trimmed and decorated with lace, ribbons and netting. Those were cut low with short sleeves.
In the 1800s, women's dressing was characterised by short hair with white hats, trim, feathers, lace, shawls and hooded-overcoats while men preferred linen shirts with high collars, tall hats and short and wigless hair.
In the 1810s, dress for women was designed with soft, subtle, sheer classical drapes with raised back waist and short-fitted single-breasted jackets. Their hair was parted in the centre and they wore tight ringlets in the ears. Men's dress was fabricated with single-breasted tailcoats, cravats (the forerunner of the necktie and bow tie) wrapped up to the chin with natural hair, tight breeches and silk stockings. Accessories included gold watches, canes and hats.
In the 1820s, women's dress came with waist lines that almost dropped with elaborate hem and neckline decoration, cone-shaped skirts and sleeves. Men's overcoats were designed with fur of velvet collars.
Fashion designers still get inspired by 18th century creations. The impact of the 'clothing revolution' changed the dynamics of history of clothing. Paris is a global fashion hub and despite competition from Italy, the United Kingdom, Spain and Germany, French citizens continue to maintain their indisputable image of modish, fashion-loving people.
About the author
Abarrna Devi R is a final year B. Tech student in the department of fashion technology in Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Coimbatore, and Tamil Nadu.
References
1. Dauncey, Hugh, ed., French Popular Culture: An Introduction, New York: Oxford University Press (Arnold Publishers), 2003.
2. DeJean, Joan, the Essence of Style: How the French Invented High Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafes, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour, New York: Free Press, 2005, ISBN978-0-7432-6413-6
3. Kelly, Michael, French Culture and Society: The Essentials, New York: Oxford University Press (Arnold Publishers), 2001, (a reference guide)
4. Nadeau, Jean-Benot and Julie Barlow, Sixty Million Frenchmen Can't Be Wrong: Why We Love France but Not the French, Sourcebooks Trade, 2003, ISBN1-4022-0045-5
5. Bourhis, Katell le: The Age of Napoleon: Costume from Revolution to Empire, 1789-1815, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1989. ISBN0870995707